Stereotypes of Italian Americans in Film and Television

Italian Americans  may be European in ancestry, but they were not always treated as white in the United States, as the pervasive stereotypes about them demonstrate. Not only did Italian immigrants to America face employment discrimination in their adopted homeland, but they also faced violence by whites who viewed them as â€Å"different.† Because of their once marginalized status in this country, ethnic stereotypes of Italians persist in film and television. On the big and small screen, alike, Italian Americans are all too often portrayed as mobsters, thugs and peasants hawking spaghetti sauce. While Italian Americans have made great strides in U.S. society, their characterization in popular culture remains stereotypical and troublesome. Mobsters Fewer than .0025 percent of Italian Americans are involved in organized crime, according to the  Italian American News website. But one would be hard-pressed to know that from watching Hollywood television shows and movies, where just about every Italian family has mob ties. In addition to films such as â€Å"The Godfather,† â€Å"Goodfellas,† â€Å"Casino† and â€Å"Donnie Brasco,† television shows such as  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Sopranos,† â€Å"Growing Up Gotti† and â€Å"Mob Wives† have perpetuated the idea that Italian Americans and organized crime go hand-in-hand. While many of these films and shows  have won critical praise, they do little to complicate the image Italian Americans have in popular culture. Food-Making  Peasants Italian cuisine is among the most popular in the United States. Accordingly, a number of television commercials depict Italians and Italian  Americans flipping pizzas, stirring tomato sauce and squashing grapes. In many of these commercials, Italian Americans are portrayed as heavily accented, robust peasants. The Italian American News website describes how a Ragu commercial features â€Å"several elderly, overweight Italian American women in housedresses [who] are so delighted with Ragu’s meat sauce that they turn somersaults and play leapfrog in a meadow.† An undue amount of food ads portray Italian women as â€Å"elderly, overweight housewives and grandmothers wearing black dresses, housecoats or aprons,† the site reports. â€Å"Jersey Shore† When MTV reality series â€Å"Jersey Shore† debuted, it became a pop culture sensation. Viewers of all ages and ethnic backgrounds faithfully tuned in to watch the group of mostly Italian American friends hit the bar scene, work out at the gym, tan and do laundry. But  prominent Italian-Americans protested  that the bouffant-haired stars of the show—self-described Guidos and Guidettes—were spreading  negative stereotypes about Italians. Joy Behar,  co-host of ABC’s â€Å"The View,† said that â€Å"Jersey Shore† did not represent her culture. â€Å"I do have a master’s degree, so a person like me is rather annoyed with a show like that because I went to college, you know, to better myself, and then these idiots come out and make Italians look bad,† she said. â€Å"It’s awful. They should go to Firenze and Rome and Milano and see what Italians really did in this world. It’s irritating.† Bigoted Thugs Anyone familiar with Spike Lee’s films knows that he has persistently depicted Italian Americans as dangerous, racist thugs from New York City’s working class. Italian Americans such as these can be found in a number of Spike Lee films, most notably â€Å"Jungle Fever,† â€Å"Do The Right Thing† and â€Å"Summer of Sam.† When Lee criticized Django Unchained  director Quentin Tarantino for turning slavery into a spaghetti Western,  Italian groups called him a hypocrite because of the thread of anti-Italian bias that runs through his films, they said. â€Å"When it comes to Italian Americans, Spike Lee has never done the right thing,† said Andre DiMino, president of the Italian American One Voice Coalition. â€Å"One wonders if Spike Lee is indeed a racist who hates Italians and why he harbors a grudge.† One Voice voted Lee into its Hall of Shame because of his portrayals of Italian Americans. In particular, the group criticized â€Å"Summer of Sam† because the movie â€Å"descends into a panoply of negative character portrayals, with Italian Americans as mobsters, drug dealers, drug addicts, racists, deviants, buffoons, bimbos, and sex-crazed fiends.†

Music Is a Kind of Mathematics Free Essays

â€Å"Music is a kind of Mathematics†. â€Å"Mathematics are a measure of beauty even when man is a measure of beauty†. I heard the professor saying these two sentences in class and it hit me hard. We will write a custom essay sample on Music Is a Kind of Mathematics or any similar topic only for you Order Now I remembered the teachers in lower classes telling us that Mathematics are the key for everything in life and we didn’t believe them, protesting that â€Å"Art†, for example, has nothing to do with Mathematics. Apparently, they were right. But how come do Mathematics seem to be considered as a measure of beauty? Many philosophers have said and written about art’s beauty and aesthetics, and it always included some kind of Mathematics in it. In 1150 AD, Acharya Hemachandra wrote about, what’s now called Fibonacci Numbers (In Mathematics, Fibonacci numbers are specialized that the last number is the sum of the two previous ones, such as the following: 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610†¦), in poetry lines, 70 years before Fibonacci published his own experiment in his first edition of Liber Abaci. In addition, Pingala seemed to have used them in 200 BC, by considering poetry patterns divided to two lengths of syllables; long and short. In 1, 2 and 3 syllables there’s always matching ways to put them. But when it comes to 4 syllables there’s 5 ways, just like for 5 syllables there’s 8 ways and so it goes. And that’s what’s special and beautiful about poetry and more precisely rhythm. The Fibonacci numbers were also utilized by many arrangers when composing music, and many poets say that the Golden Ratio goes back to the time of the middle ages. The researches show that Stradivari knew about and utilized the Golden Ratio to put the f-holes in his famous violins. And then there’s Baginsky’s strategy for constructing violins which is in light of the Golden Section. Music made by Mozart, Bach and Beethoven seem to be based on the Golden Section too. Maybe this is the reason why their music is beautiful. Books about oil painting in all libraries will probably call attention to that it is better to use lines that divide the picture to thirds and to position objects on one of the sides or â€Å"around 33%† of the way across rather than in the middle of the picture. This appears to upgrade the photo to make it more satisfying to the eye and this idea depends again on the Golden Ratio being â€Å"perfect†, leaving behind what’s called a beautiful masterpiece painting. Moreover, physical attraction relies upon proportions, and specifically symmetry. When someone else’s body is in proportions and symmetrical, it’s more likely for us to find it more attractive and beautiful. In the same manner, if a face is proportionate, we will probably notice it quickly and think that it’s beautiful and perfect. Leonardo da Vinci’s illustrations of the human body accentuated its ratio. Essentially, it is trusted that buildings might be more appealing to a number of people if the proportions used are based on the Golden Section. Therefore, the Golden Ration is taught to architecture students rather than civil engineering students, because architecture is more related to aesthetics which is globally based on Mathematics. For instance, Vitruvius had explained many artistic and architectural things based on proportions, and those are based on Mathematics: -Natural colors, which are found in specific places, and artificial colors that are combined in proper proportions.-â€Å"It is thought that the columns of basilicas ought to be as high as the side-aisles are broad; an aisle should be limited to one third of the breadth which the open space in the middle is to have. â€Å"(Vitruvius, The ten books on Architecture, Book V, p.132) Sizes, in this case, are also proportionate, which increases its beauty as much as it assures its stability. The Golden Section, widely the Fibonacci sequence, also happen in nature, in the patterns we sometimes find in pine cones, pineapples, artichokes, petals of flowers, the leaves of the plants†¦ Generally, because of the best approaches to efficiently pack things firmly together, using the Fibonacci sequence. (The plant needs to get sunshine on all its leaves without one getting in the way of another or else it would be bad for it, that’s what it does without special intervention, as the plant doesn’t do Mathematics, scientists considered the idea of the Golden Section as its natural growth.) And since God has created everything, some researchers and scientists tend to say that God is the greatest Mathematician such as the following list and many others:-Galileo Galilei who confirmed: â€Å"Mathematics is the language with which God has written the universe.†-That in addition the Euclid: â€Å"The laws of nature are but the Mathematical thoughts of God. â€Å"-And Paul Dirac said: â€Å"If there is a God, he’s a great mathematician. God used beautiful mathematics in creating the world. â€Å"-To end this here’s what Maulana Wahiduddin Khan believed: â€Å"The truth is that God is the greatest Mathematician, the greatest artist and the greatest genius.† Just like some people consider that beauty is based on Mathematics, â€Å"all mathematicians share a sense of amazement over the infinite depth and the mysterious beauty and usefulness of Mathematics† (Martin Gardner), in addition to other people who consider Mathematics as the queen of science (or not even a science, just a beautiful thing). They say that Mathematics is the only place where truth and beauty mean the same thing. And from their point of view, if it is correctly used, it has truth as well as preeminent aesthetics. And when someone asked him why he considered numbers beautiful, Paul Erdà ¶s said: â€Å"It’s like asking why is Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony beautiful. If you don’t see why, someone can’t tell you. I know numbers are beautiful. If they aren’t beautiful, nothing is†? How to cite Music Is a Kind of Mathematics, Papers

Tech changes education system free essay sample

Teaching and learning process will change significantly due to the technological innovations in daily education activities. Learning platforms, software tools developed to support the different stages of education, personal devices like PC tablets and e-book readers and displaying devices like interactive web boards will have an impact on how educators plan programmes and how students receive information. 1)Positive Effects of Technology on Education Talking in a positive sense, the impact of technology on education has been phenomenal. Using Internet and computers as en effective medium to establish communication between schools, teachers, students and parents; educational institutes have been able to handle many issues that were previously not handled with ease due to geographical limitations or lack of adequate training technologies. 2)Enhanced Teaching and Learning Technological developments like digital cameras, projectors, mind training software, computers, PowerPoint presentations, 3D visualization tools; all these have become great sources for teachers to help students grasp a concept easily. It has to be understood that visual explanation of concepts makes learning fun and enjoyable for students. Theyre able to participate more in the classroom and even teachers get a chance to make their classes more interactive and interesting. The importance of technology in schools can be understood from the fact that it empowers the educational system and produces better students. 3)No Geographical Limitations With the introduction of online degree programs there is hardly any need of being present physically in the classroom. Even several foreign universities have started industry oriented online degree courses that aspirants can join. Distance learning and online education have become an integral part of the education system nowadays. Certainly, the value of off-campus education may never be equal to that of on-campus training but for diploma and other courses, when the student is thousands of mile away from the educational institute, these online courses can be of great advantage. Negative effects 1)Poor Teacher Student Relationship any teachers have a common complaint that negative habits of students are more exacerbated due to the use of technology. In countries like the US, where assignments and homework are required to be submitted online, students tend to forget common email etiquette like salutation and sometimes, even adding texts in the attachments! Moreover, the trend of last day submissions has now transformed into last hour, last minute submissions. Students submit their assignments even hours after the time for submission is over and their emails dont contain any explanation or a note of apology. Moreover, questions, queries and problems regarding any topic in assignments that should reach to the teacher within 24 hours of submission of the homework, remain due for days. Not many students are even bothered to get their queries cleared. Those few who raise questions want them to be answered online which is not always possible, as teacher student interaction is something that is vital to understand intricate topics. The trend of blackboards wherein, teachers post online notes, lectures, assignments and other information has cultivated the habit of skipping college lectures amongst students. The belief that Google is always there, has made students disorganized and impatient. They just want to copy and paste the information, so that they can finish the assignment. Going to the college library, searching for information from books or even online library facilities seems to be a daunting task for students. Teachers have expressed concern that not many students are productively utilizing technology for their growth. Teachers are also concerned about the fact that students dont fix appointments with them to seek answers to queries or to know something more about the subject. 2)Lack of Focus SMS or text messaging has become a favorite pastime of many students. Students are seen playing with their cell phone, iPhones day and night, right from crossing a street, or driving and very often even between lectures. Being ever-connected to the online world has resulted in lack of focus and concentration in academics and to some extent, even in sports and extra curricular activities. It is certainly not possible to read a difficult subject and at the same time, chat with a friend, and remain logged in on facebook. These are very obvious distractions that have eroded the sense of mental focus, peace and concentration ability from students life. Video gaming for instance has become the greatest distraction for students. Teenagers are easily influenced by any new gadget and technology being introduced in the market and this has also made them splurge unnecessarily. 3)Poor Reading and Writing Skills Reading seems to be a lost hobby in this age. While there is a plentiful of information in the form of free ebooks available on the Internet, anybody who likes reading will agree that reading a book online and reading a printed form of book certainly has some prominent differences. Even if students were reading books online, it would have been fair but the fact is that owing to bombardment of information, the moment a teenager opens a website, he is lost elsewhere, either searching for new games or opening his or her facebook profile. Since assignments are mostly done online, hand writing skills of students have become pathetic. It is understandable that in this age of computers, there is hardly any requirement of hand writing skills but still, a good hand writing is an integral part of learning. It improves our eye to hand coordination, makes us more focused and gives us an opportunity to express ourselves, more profoundly. Writing skills also convey deeper aspects about our personality like our organizational abilities and ability to express our ideas in a refined manner. Certainly, typing on a keyboard doesnt impair creativity in writing (in fact they are useful, as using a backspace, one can easily change previous sentences). Nevertheless, hand writing skills are certainly an integral part of good education. Since technology has both positive and negative dimensions, we must make efforts to help students and kids realize the potential in the proper use of technology. Since kids always love freedom, respective authorities must ensure that they are not overdosing students with strict rules and regulations regarding using technologies in schools and colleges. But, certain rules are essential to avoid overuse of technology in education. That will ensure that technology is used for improving a students life and not wasting valuable resources like time and money.

I Dont Believe Money Can Buy Happiness

Happiness is very essential in each and everyone’s life as it makes life enjoyable and motivates someone to move on. There are many factors that contribute to an individual’s happiness, for instance, satisfaction in one’s family life, work, love relationships and even good academic performance.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on I Don’t Believe Money Can Buy Happiness specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Money is also a contributing factor but only when combined with other aspects like mentioned above. This paper gives an insight on why I don’t believe that money can buy happiness. I don’t believe that money can buy happiness since some aspects that leads to happiness for example respect, power love and a feeling of appreciation and belonging cannot be bought but rather attained naturally. The more one earns, the more the needs that are to be satisfied and so money is essential to a certain level after which it becomes a problem and make people less approachable and more egocentric affecting their social life negatively hence hindering happiness in their lives. Money also impairs people ability to enjoy life and the many things they have acquired through their wealth despite being in a better position to purchase items of choice because life’s little pleasures are overlooked. Money helps us to have a comfortable life as we can be able to cater for our needs but it surely cannot buy us happiness. This is because happiness in our lives is brought about by the little pleasures that life holds for us for example the joy attained through socialization with others, satisfaction in work and family life among others and not in the big pleasures attached to wealth and money. Materialistic people are generally unhappy as they tend to ignore the little things that bring about happiness in life in search of bigger things with the hope of being happier which doe s not come to pass. According to Luscombe (2010), money contributes happiness when it is acquired to a certain amount ($ 75,000) in a year after which no greater happiness is attached to the money. He argues that the lower an individual’s income falls below $75,000 per year, the unhappier he or she may be but at the same time, earning more than this does not guarantee any much happiness. This shows that as much as money is essential in acquisition and satisfaction of our needs, it does not guarantee our happiness by its own and other aspects of life have to be incorporated to attain happiness.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Happiness can be viewed as the way one feels at a particular moment for example either emotionally well or not. It can also be viewed as the inner satisfaction an individual feels about his or her life in general in regard to what is happening. Money seems to make life appear to be working out well but it actually does not contribute to a person’s emotional well being that leads to total happiness. Lower income does not in itself lead to sadness but make people stressed up by the problems that face them. For instance those with family problems like those who are sick, separated or divorced are not happy irrespective of the amount of income they earn hence money just help improve living conditions and brings a person to a life he or she thinks is better but do not necessarily lead to happiness. There is more to happiness than money and there are people who are without money but are happier than those with lots of money depending on the circumstances that face them and the conditions in which they live. People who delight in their work for example those who are involved in more social work and lot of human contact seem to achieve much higher levels of happiness as compared to those whose work involves dealing with machines and l ess human interaction since there is a good feeling that comes along with sharing of experiences, ideas and opinions with others. For example hairdressers, doctors, nurses, teachers and social workers tend to be happier due to the strong social relations they develop in their work between their colleagues and also with their clients. This shows that although income matters, our attitude towards life is essential plus the consideration of other factors that may lead to our happiness like love, respect and recognition. The key issue towards attainment of happiness is the ability to have just enough money to cater for the basic needs for instance food, clothing, shelter and health and some little more for emergency and concentrating on how you spend your time and not what you can acquire. One should work on his or her strengths, purpose, the people and things that make life worth living and not on the items perceived to bring happiness but in reality do not. This is because happiness i s an attitude and making enough to facilitate basic needs and a little surplus creates some peace of mind hence happiness and lack of it causes pain and stress as one tries to make ends meet.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on I Don’t Believe Money Can Buy Happiness specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Reference Luscombe, B. (2010). Do We Need $75,000 a Year to Be Happy? Retrieved from http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2019628,00.html This essay on I Don’t Believe Money Can Buy Happiness was written and submitted by user Elle Q. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Bsnl Training Essay Example

Bsnl Training Essay Example Bsnl Training Essay Bsnl Training Essay mzn, who permitted me for the practical training in their Department. I am also grateful to all Technical Staff of B. S. N. L. whose transcendent thoughts were the tremendous source of inspiration and encouragement, which will be definitely important for me as far my future is concerned. They explained primary techniques in a very easy manner. I also extend my gratitude to whole staff of B. S. N. L. , Muzaffarnagar, for their kind cooperation. CONTENTS Page No.  ¦ Company Profile 4-5  ¦ Vision, Mission and Objectives 6  ¦ Broadband Services 9 Technology Used 10  ¦ Wired Line 11-17  ¦ Wireless Line 18-26  ¦ Bibliography 12 COMPANY PROFILE On October 1, 2000 the Department of Telecom Operations, Government of India became a corporation and was christened Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL). Today, BSNL is the largest Public Sector Undertaking of India and its responsibilities include improvement of the already impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of telecom network introduction of new telecom services in all villages and instilling confidence among its customers. Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. formed in October, 2000, is Worlds 7th largest Telecommunications Company providing comprehensive range of telecom services in India: Wireline, CDMA mobile, GSM Mobile, Internet, Broadband, Carrier service, MPLS-VPN, VSAT, VoIP services, IN Services etc. Presently it is one of the largest leading public sector unit in India. BSNL has installed Quality Telecom Network in the country and now focusing on improving it, expanding the network, introducing new telecom services with ICT applications in villages and wining customers confidence. Today, it has about 47. 3 million line basic telephone capacity, 4 million WLL capacity, 48. 11 Million GSM Capacity, more than 37382 fixed exchanges, 44966 BTS, 3140 Node B ( 3G BTS), 287 Satellite Stations, 480196 Rkm of OFC Cable, 63730 Rkm of Microwave Network connecting 602 Districts, 7330 cities/towns and 5. Lakhs villages. BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts and planned initiatives to bridge the Rural-Urban Digital Divide ICT sector. In fact there is no telecom operator in the country to beat its reach with its wide network giving services in every nook corner of country and operates across India except Delhi Mumbai. Whether it is inaccessible areas of Siachen glacier an d North-eastern region of the country. BSNL serves its customers with its wide bouquet of telecom services. BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure that provides convergent services like voice, data and video through the same Backbone and Broadband Access Network. At present there are 0. 6 million DataOne broadband customers. The company has vast experience in Planning, Installation, network integration and Maintenance of Switching Transmission Networks and also has a world class ISO 9000 certified Telecom Training Institute. BSNL cellular service, CellOne, has more than 49. 09 million cellular customers, garnering 16. 98 percent of all mobile users in its area of operation as its subscribers. In basic services, BSNL is miles ahead of its rivals, with 35. 1 million Basic Phone subscribers i. e. 85 per cent share of the subscriber base and 92 percent share in revenue terms. BSNL plans to expand its customer base from present 47 millions lines to 125 million lines by December 2007 and infrastructure investment plan to the tune of Rs. 733 crores (US$ 16. 67 million) in the next three years. The turnover, nationwide coverage, reach, comprehensive range of telecom services and the desire to excel has made BSNL the No. 1 Telecom Company of India. VISION, MISSION OBJECTIVES VISION: To become the largest telecom Service Provider in   Asia. MISSION: To provide world class State-of-art technology telecom services to its customers on demand at competitive prices. To Provide world class telecom infrastructure in its area of operation and to contribute to the growth of  the  countrys economy. OBJECTIVES: (1) To be the Lead Telecom Services Provider. (2) To provide mobile telephone service of high quality and become no. 1 GSM operator in its area of operation. (3) To provide point of interconnection to other service provider as per their requirement promptly. 4) Contribute towards: (i) National Plan Target of 500 million subscriber base for India by 2010. (ii) Providing telephone connection in villages as per government policy. (iii) Implementation of Triple play as a regular commercial proposition. (5) To facilitate R D activity in the country. Voice The majority of all telecommunication today uses Digital techniques, and the dominance of digital is so strong that in this text we will neglect Analog communication almost completely. When communicating voice digitally, the sound waves in the air must be digitalized. This is done by sampling the sound waves: measuring their shape, and converting this measurement into numbers. These numbers are a digital form of the voice signal. At the receiver, the measurement values (called samples) are used to reconstruct the original sound wave. To be able to reconstruct the voice with sufficient quality, the number of samples taken (called the Sampling-rate) and the accuracy of each sample (called the Resolution) must be sufficient. This is a trade-off, because the more samples, the more digital numbers needs to be transmitted, and this costs money. As a good compromise for understandable voice, the telecom community agreed to take 8000 samples per second, each 8 bits precise. This will not result into perfect audio-quality, but it is enough to understand the person on the other side of the line. As you are converting the sound waves to digital numbers, you create a continuous stream of information flow: every second you generate transport terminate 8000*8 = 64000 bits. This amount is called the Bit-rate. As a result a single digital voice connection is often referred to as a 64 kbps (kilo-bits-per-second). This continuous stream lasts as long as the phone conversation lasts, typically a few minutes. Note: As a comparison, an audio CD signal uses 44100 samples per second, each 16 bit precision, and two channels (left+right) to provide stereo. You will agree that CD sound quality is much better than a phone-line, but the price for this is that you need to transport 1. 411 Mbps for the CD (mega-bits-per-second), where only 64 kbps for a telephone line. Data When computers or machines communicate with each other, they usually dont send a continuous stream of information. Typically a computer needs some limited input data, then processes this, and responds with a limited amount of result data. Therefore data communication is using the concept of information packets a group of information bits. So one computer sends a packet of input to the other computer, which processes it, and then returns a packet with the results. BROADBAND SERVICES Broadband is often called high-speed Internet, because it usually has a high rate of data transmission. In general, any connection to the customer of 256 kbit/s (0. 256 Mbit/s) or more is considered broadband Internet. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has defined broadband as 256 kbit/s in at least one direction and this bit rate is the most common baseline that is marketed as broadband around the world. Telecommunication regulatory authority of India(TRAI) defines broadband as â€Å"an always on data connection that is able to support interactive services including internet access has the capability of the minimum download speed of 256Kbps to an individual subscriber from the point of presence of the service provider intending to provide broadband service where multiple uch individual broadband connections are aggregated the subscriber is able to access these interactive services including the internet through the POP. The interactive services will include any services for which a separate license is specifically required. For example- real time voice transmission, except to the extent that it is presently permitted under ISP license with internet Telephony†. TECHNOLOGY USED Broadband access technology is classified into two categories: Wired Line * DSL (Digital subscriber’s line) * Cable Modem * PLC (power line communication) * Optical fibre technologies Wireless Line * 3G Mobile Wi-Fi (Wireless fidelity) * Wi-Max * FSO (Free space optical) * LMDS MMDS * Satellite Wired Line: * DSL: Digital subscriber lines apply modern digital techniques on twisted pair medium to deliver new services over existing infrastructure. The bandwidth and quality of a typical analog telephone line is relatively low (300 3400 Hz). This is mainly because there is a wide variety of types, lengths, qualities, etc of twisted pairs used, and an analog line must assume the worst-case common denominator of all. However, todays more powerful signal processing and computing techniques allow building equipment hat adapts to each particular twisted pair, optimizing the use of it case by case, and resulting in much higher throughputs. For the Telecom operator, the advantages are: * No additional cable-cost: uses existing telephone line. * Telephone network is not used for data-services, like accessing the Internet. Telephone networks are dimensioned for phone calls, not for accessing the Internet. For example the average phone call duration is 100 seconds, when surfing the Internet this is much longer, resulting in congestion in the telephone network. Advantages for the end-user: High throughput up to Mbps. * Telephone is still available when surfing the Internet, telephone and data-services can be used at the same time. HDSL XDSL is a family name for a number of similar techniques. The x is a placeholder for several variants of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL). The first one, which was developed, was High Speed Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL) It is a symmetrical technique, the same bandwidth is available in both directions. HDSL is typically deployed in the network where 2. 048 Mbps are needed, but only twisted pair (no coax or fiber) is a vailable. ADSL Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) is the best-known variant of XDSL: The main principles are the same, but the bandwidths are divided Asymmetrical: more bandwidth is made available from network to user (Downstream) then from network to user (Upstream). This matches with typical residential applications, Such as: * Video-on-Demand (VOD): video, typically a few Mbps going downstream, with the user control (selecting the video, play, stop, rewind, etc) only a few kbps going upstream. * Internet: WEB-contents going downstream are megabytes; user requests are only a few hundred bytes. Figure: Internet Access Provider, ADSL VDSL Digital subscriber lines make a trade-off between bandwidth and distance: the shorter the line, the higher the throughput. As a result of this, a number of variants of DSL-techniques are being developed, from long distance – low bandwidth to short distance high bandwidth. Another parameter is the division of Upstream/Downstream bandwidth. This can be: * Symmetrical: the same in each direction, * Asymmetrical, fixed * Asymmetrical, dynamic: the total bandwidth, upstream+downstream is fixed, but at any time this total can be assigned in a certain ratio to either direction. New DSL variants using these new techniques are called Very High Speed Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL) Figure: Different DSL technique CABLE MODEM A cable modem with a splitter can provide Internet access to multiple PCs, if they are connected via a LAN. * Tuner converts TV channel to a fixed lower frequency (6 to 40 Mhz). * Demodulator performs A/D demodulation, error correction MPEG synchronization. * MAC extracts data from MPEG frames, filters data for other cable modem, runs the protocol. * Burst modulator performs RS encoding modulation frequency conversion/A conversion. Interface can be PCI bus, universal serial bus, Ethernet or others. Figure : -Cable Modem POWER-LINE COMMUNICATION(PLC) This is a new service still in its infancy that may eventually permit broadband Internet data to travel down standard high-voltage power lines. Broadband over power lines (BPL), also known as Power line communication, has developed faster in Europe than in the US due to a historical difference in power system design philosophies. Nearly all large power grids transmit power at high voltages in order to reduce transmission losses, then near the customer use step-down transformers to reduce the voltage. Since BPL signals cannot readily pass through transformers, repeaters must be attached to the transformers. In the US, it is common for a small transformer hung from a utility pole to service a single house. In Europe, it is more common for a somewhat larger transformer to service 10 or 100 houses. For delivering power to customers, this difference in design makes little difference, but it means delivering BPL over the power grid of a typical US city will require an order of magnitude more repeaters than would be required in a comparable European city. The second major issue is signal strength and operating frequency. The system is expected to use frequencies in the 10 to 30 MHz range, which has been used for decades by licensed amateur radio operators, as well as international shortwave broadcasters and a variety of communications systems (military, aeronautical, etc. ). However there are some disadvantages of using PLC communication: N/w characterstics devices can advesely affect signal strength quality. Electronic loads nearby high frequency radiation sources may cause high frequency noise that interferes BPL. Some PLC systems are not fully operable at very low or no load without battery backup. Physics limits frequency on power lines to ; 100 Mhz. BPL is not likely to be available soon for high voltage(;66Kv)power lines. Conventional electronic surge arrestors severely attenuate BPL signals. OPTIC-FIBRE TECHNOLOGY Currently fibre costs are high as compared to copper but there is a trend towards decreasing costs of optical fibre cables and photonics employed. To carry same information as one fibre cable we would need hundreds of reels of twisted wire copper cables. Fibre is 23 times lighter than copper cable 36 times less in cross section. Advantages Of Optic-Fibre Communication: Small Size and Weight: Optical fibers have very small diameters which are often no greater than the diameter of a human hair. Hence, even when such fibers are covered with protective coatings they are far smaller and much lighter than corresponding copper cables. This is a tremendous boon towards the alleviation of duct congestion in cities, as well as allowing for an expansion of signal transmiss ion within mobiles such as aircraft, satellites and even ships. Signal Security: The light from optical fibers does not radiate significantly and therefore they provide a high degree of signal security. Unlike the situation with copper cables, a transmitted optical signal cannot be obtained from a fiber in a noninvasive manner (i. e. without drawing optical power from the fiber). Therefore, in theory, any attempt to acquire a message signal transmitted optically may be detected. This feature is obviously attractive for military, banking and general data transmission (i. e. computer network) application. Ruggedness and Flexibility:- Although protective coatings are essential, optical fibers may be manufactured with very high tensile strengths. Perhaps surprisingly for a glassy substance, the fibers may also be bent to quite small radii or twisted without damage. Furthermore cable structures have been developed which have proved flexible, compact and extremely rugged. Taking the size and weight advantage into account, these optical fiber cables are generally superior in terms of storage, transportation, handling and installation to corresponding copper cables, whilst exhibiting at least comparable strength and durability. System Reliability And Ease Of Maintenance :- These features primarily stem from the low loss property of optical fiber cables which reduces the equirement for intermediate repeaters or line amplifiers to boost the transmitted signal strength. Hence with fewer repeaters, system furthermore, the reliability of the optical components is no longer a problem with predicted lifetimes of 20 to 30 years now quite common. Both these factors also tend to reduce maintenance time and costs. Enormous Potential Bandw idth: The optical carrier frequency in the range 1013 to 1016 Hz (generally in the near infrared around 1014 Hz or 105 GHz) yields a far greater potential transmission bandwidth than metallic cable systems. i. e. coaxial cable bandwidth up to around 500 MHz) or even millimetre wave radio systems (i. e. systems currently operating with modulation bandwidths of 700 MHz ). At present, the bandwidth available to fiber systems is not fully utilized but modulation at several gigahertz over a hundred kilometers and hundreds of megahertz over three hundred kilometers without intervening electronics (repeaters) is possible. Therefore, the information – carrying capacity of optical fiber systems has proved far superior to the best copper cable systems. Wireless Line: * Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a standard and communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range (power-class-dependent: 1 meter, 10 meters, 100 meters) based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Bluetooth enables these devices to communicate with each other when they are in range. The devices use a radio communications system, so they do not have to be in line of sight of each other, and can even be in other rooms, as long as the received transmission is powerful enough. Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, printers, modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i. e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files). Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices. Any Bluetooth device can, in theory, host any other Bluetooth device. This makes using services easier because there is no longer a need to set up network addresses or permissions as in many other network. More prevalent applications of Bluetooth include: Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands-free headset. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular. Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required. Wireless communications with PC input and output devices, the most common being the mouse, keyboard and printer. Replacement of traditional wired serial communications in test equipment, GPS receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices. For controls where infrared was traditionally used. Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices. Future of Bluetooth: * Broadcast Channel: enables Bluetooth information points. This will drive the adoption of Bluetooth into mobile phones, and enable advertising models based around users pulling information from the information points, and not based around the object push model that is used in a limited way today. Topology Management: enables the automatic configuration of the piconet topologies especially in scatternet situations that are becoming more common today. This should all be invisible to the users of the technology, while also making the technology just work. * Alternate MAC PHY: enables the use of alternative MAC and PHYs for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The Bluetooth Radio will still be used for device discovery, initial connection and profile configuration, however when lots of data needs to be sent, the high speed alternate MAC PHYs will be used to transport the data. This means that the proven low power connection models of Bluetooth are used when the system is idle, and the low power per bit radios are used when lots of data needs to be sent. * QoS improvements: enable audio and video data to be transmitted at a higher quality, especially when best effort traffic is being transmitted in the same piconet. Figure: -A typical Bluetooth USB dongle * 3-G Mobile: 2. 54 3 G falls into the category of broadband access. 2. 5G- GSM (EDGE/GPRS), CDMA 3G-VMTS/WCDMA, CDMA, speed achieved by 3G is 384K(M),2048K(S) Technology| 3G| Frequency Band| 1. 8-2. 5 GHz| Bandwidth| 5-20 MHz| Data Rate| Up-to 2 Mbps| Access| W-CDMA| FEC| Turbo-Codes| Switching| Cirsuit/Packet| Figure: -3G Services * Wi-Fi: A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a PC, game console, cell phone, MP3 player or PDA can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network connected to the Internet. The coverage of one or more interconnected access points - called a hotspot - can comprise an area as small as a single room with wireless-opaque walls or as large as many square miles covered by overlapping access points. Wi-Fi technology has served to set up mesh networks, for example, in London. Both architectures can operate in community networks. In addition to restricted use in homes and offices, Wi-Fi can make access publicly available at Wi-Fi hotspots provided either free of charge or to subscribers to various providers. Wi-Fi also allows connectivity in peer-to-peer (wireless ad-hoc network) mode, which enables devices to connect directly with each other. This connectivity mode can prove useful in consumer electronics and gaming applications. Figure : -A keychain size Wi-Fi detector. Operational advantages: Wi-Fi allows LANs (Local Area Networks) to be deployed without cabling for client devices, typically reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Spaces where cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs. * WiMAX WiMAX, an approximate acronym of Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a telecommunications technology that provides for the wireless transmission of data using a variety of transmission modes, from point-to-point links to full mobile cellular-type access. The technology provides upto 70 Mb/sec symmetric broadband speed without the need for cables. The technology is based on the IEEE 802. 16 standard (also called WirelessMAN). The name WiMAX was created by the WiMAX Forum, which was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity and interoperability of the standard. Uses: The bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential applications: * Connecting Wi-Fi hotspots to the Internet. * Providing a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for last mile broadband access. * Providing data and telecommunications services. Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan. That is, if a business has a fixed and a wireless Internet connection, especially from unrelated providers, they are unlikely to be affected by the same service outage. * Providing portable connectivity. Comparison with Wi-Fi: Comparisons and confusion between WiMAX and Wi-Fi are frequent, possibly because both begin with the same two letters, are based upon IEEE standards beginning with 802. , and are related to wireless connectivity and Internet access. However, the two standards are aimed at different applications. WiMAX is a long-range system, covering many miles/kilometers that typically uses licensed spectrum (although it is possible to use unlicensed spectrum) to deliver a point-to-point connection to the Internet from an ISP to an end user. Different 802. 16 standards provide different types of access, from mobile (similar to a cellphone) to fixed (an alternative to wired access, where the end users wireless termination point is fixed in location. ) * Wi-Fi is generally a shorter range system, typically tens of yards/meters, though its range can be extended to over a kilometer using directional antennas. Wi-Fi uses unlicensed spectrum to provide access to a network. Typically Wi-Fi is used by an end user to access his/her own network, which may or may not be connected to the Internet. If WiMAX provides services analogous to a cellphone, Wi-Fi is similar to a cordless phone. * WiMAX and Wi-Fi have quite different Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms. WiMAX uses a mechanism based on connections between the Base Station and the user device. Each connection is based on specific scheduling algorithms, which means that QoS parameters can be guaranteed for each flow. Wi-Fi has introduced a QoS mechanism similar to fixed Ethernet, where packets can receive different priorities based on their tags. This means that QoS is relative between packets/flows, as opposed to guaranteed. * WiMAX is highly scalable from what are called femto-scale remote stations to multi-sector maxi scale base that handle complex tasks of management and mobile handoff functions and include MIMO-AAS smart antenna subsystems. * LMDS: Local Multipoint Distribution Services (LMDS) is a radio-based access system. A fixed base-antenna (typically on a high building or tower) called Hub, services a number of users, which are also fixed. (Customer antenna on top of building). The access has a broadband capacity it can be used for all kinds of telecom services: * POTS or ISDN telephony. * Data services such as LAN interconnect, ATM, IP networks, etc. * Digital Video broadcasting. And potential customers are: * Businesses * Schools, Libraries, Health care providers * Residential consumers Each Hub is at the center of cell, a few kilometers in size, containing hundreds or thousands of users. Interconnections between hubs are typically done through fiber-optic core networks. The radio frequencies used are in the range 28 GHz to 42 GHz. This requires line-of-sight between hub and end-user. The word Local in LMDS refers to the relative short distance, or small cell-size. The words Multipoint Distribution refers to the point to multipoint nature. Figure 36: Local Multipoint Distribution Services * Free Space Optics (FSO): It is optical wireless, point-to-point line of sight broadband technology that is an alternative to fiber optic cable systems. It can transmit up to 1. 25 Gbps at a distance of 4 miles. * Satellite: It offers two-way Internet access via satellite orbiting the earth about 22000 miles above equator. PC through a special satellite modem broadcasts the requests to the satellite dish located on top of the roof / building which in turn transmits receives signal from the satellites. But it is slower in uplink as well as in downlink. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) www. bsnl. co. in (2) www. wikipedia. org (3) www. howstuffworks. com (4) www. esnips. com

ASPECT OF CONTRACT AND NEGLIGENCE Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ASPECT OF CONTRACT AND NEGLIGENCE - Assignment Example The breach of these essential elements of a contract makes the contract void. The essentials of a valid contract include  "offer and acceptance, Intention to create a legal relationship, lawful consideration, capacity of parties, free consent, the lawful object, certainty of meaning, possibility of performance, not declared to be void or illegal and legal formalities". In the given case, the elements are same, and breach of these essential elements of a valid contract makes the contract void (Collins, 2003). c) In any contract offer, acceptance, consideration and intention are very important as these are the basic element required to make a contract legally enforceable. Offer is important because if a person does not offer to another person to do something the other person cannot perform that task. Acceptance is necessary because a person should signify his assent that he has accepted his offer to do the task. Offer and acceptance makes a contract, and there should be a consideration (monetary value) to perform the task. There should be an intention to perform the contract otherwise there is no contract. a) Contents of standard business form are the terms of the contract. Every contract consists of terms and condition, which should be fulfilled by both the parties competent to contract. These terms are set by both the parties and must perform in order to finish the contract (Jones, 2013). These terms can be written or communicated with conversation at the time of entering a contract. The terms and conditions can include the price, which will be given on performance, mode of payment and the way to perform the task. All  terms and conditions must be fulfilled and must be performed in the agreed manner as they are essentials to the contract (Austen-Baker, 2011). b) The terms identified in the contract between Lady Gaga and owner of the Opera is the performance of the artist for several days.

Criminal Behavior and Crimes against Property Assignment

Criminal Behavior and Crimes against Property - Assignment Example The Bureau of Justice, Criminal Victimization Report (2011) disclosed the relevant statistics pertaining to crimes against property, in general. It was revealed that â€Å"the overall property crime rate, which includes burglary and theft, increased 11% between 2010 and 2011, from 125.4 to 138.7 victimizations per 1,000 households† (Bureau of Justice, 2012, p. 1). The specific type of property crime pertaining to stolen fossils across countries apparently falls under the category: cultural property, art and antiquities which are being governed by the Homeland Security Investigation (U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), n.d.). There were just about 41 cases of cultural heritage repatriations that were specifically enumerated in ICE’s official website since 2003 (U.S. ICE, n.d.), excluding the recently reported stolen property. As emphasized, â€Å"the theft and trafficking of cultural items is a practice that is older than history. What is new about it is how easy it is for cultural pirates to acquire valuable antiquities, artworks and artifacts, fossils, coins or textiles and move them around the globe, swiftly, easily and inexpensively without regard to laws, borders, nationalities or their value to a nation’s heritage† (U.S. ICE, n.d., par. 2). Likewise, it was also noted that â€Å"since 2007, more than 6,600 artifacts have been returned to 24 countries, including paintings from France, Germany, Poland and Austria, 15th to 18th century manuscript from Italy and Peru, as well as cultural artifacts from China, Cambodia and Iraq† (U.S. ICE, 2012, par. 12). From the news article, it was specifically noted that the perpetrator, Eric Prokopi, was acknowledged to be a commercial paleontologist whose job included obtaining â€Å"fossils from around the world, sometimes buying or trading them, and works with museums and major auction houses† (Moynihan, 2012, par. 19). Thus, the stolen fossil was then being auctioned at Heritage Auctions for profit. As noted, the â€Å"dinosaur skeleton sold for more than $1 million† (Moynihan, 2012, par. 2).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚